Over-harvesting of its highly nutritious eggs is the main reason for its decline, even in some areas where traditional regulatory management is practiced. Civil unrest in the Moluccas has prevented conservation efforts over the past five years. However, on Haruku nesting success increased from the late 1990s onwards apparently because egg-collection virtually ceased owing to political unrest (Heij 2001a, Heij 2005a). Since 2003, the political situation has stabilised and uncontrolled harvesting has resumed (Heij 2005a,c), but while harvest effort is now likely to be as high the total number of eggs collected in 2017 was still 40% lower than in 1996/7 (Simanjuntak et al. 2020). Natural predation of eggs and chicks by Varanus lizards, snakes and birds of prey poses an increasing threat as colonies decline. Predation by introduced cats (Heij 2001b), dogs and pigs has also served to reduce the number of egg-laying birds (Heij 2005a), though these are controlled by people in heavily exploited nesting grounds (Heij et al. 1997). Sand extraction for local road construction and a number of development projects threaten nesting grounds, as does pollution from litter (Heij 2005b,c). Deforestation (through logging and agricultural encroachment) is presumed to be a threat in its non-breeding habitats. Severe droughts linked to the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) probably cause reductions in egg production.